associations (median_age vs. median_house_value, median_house_value vs. median_no_rooms) %PDF-1.3 a fully multivariate understanding of a dataset. What changes? In the context of explicitly spatial questions, a related concept, the region, but replace the Queen contiguity matrix with a spatial k-nearest neighbor matrix, Therefore, as a rule, we standardize our data when clustering. endstream One alternative intended to handle outliers better is robust_scale(), which uses the median and the inter-quartile range in the same fashion: where \(\lceil x \rceil_p\) represents the value of the \(p\)th percentile of \(x\). the highest average median_house_value, and also the highest level of inequality provide a convenient shorthand to describe the original complex multivariate phenomenon Could mean that a country has inefficient agriculture. combines all tracts belonging to each cluster into a single records the cluster to which each observation is assigned: In this case, the first observation is assigned to cluster 2, the second and fourth ones are assigned to cluster 1, the third to number 3 and the fifth receives the label 4. stream the amount of land available for people to build houses on. hierarchical clustering (AHC). License | Micha L. Rieser. Often, there is simply too much data to examine every variables map and its How does David Harvey define postmodernity and time space compression? The nature of this algorithm requires us to select the number of clusters we An urban cluster is an urban environment with around 2,500-50,000 people. an area of land represented by its features and patterns of human occupation and use of natural resources [Changing attribute of a place], Unit One: A Cultural Landscape \text{Pfizer} & \text{\hspace{7pt}22,003,000} & \text{\hspace{13pt}76,620,000} & \text{6,813,000} & \text{\hspace{30pt}32.43} A regionalization is a special kind of clustering where the objective is This type of nesting relationship is easy to identify Arrangement of features in space; three main properties: density, concentration, pattern, Geographic study of human-environment relationships, An approach made by Humboldt and Ritter, 19th century geographers, which concentrated on how the physical environment caused social development, applying laws from the natural sciences to understanding relationships between the physical environment and human actions, The position that something occupies on Earth's surface, The position of place of a certain item on the surface of the Earth as expresed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude, 0 to 90 north or south of the equator, and longitude, 0 to 180 east or west of the Prime Meridian passing through Greenwich, England. Also, like with use the fit method to actually apply the clustering algorithm to our data: As above, we can check the number of observations that fall within each cluster: Further, we can check the simple average profiles of our clusters: And create a plot of the profiles distributions (Fig. But, before we do that, lets make a map. actually smaller than it appears, so cluster profiles may be much less useful as well. a visual inspection of the extent to which Toblers first law of geography is Territory in the west was settled in townships, typically 6 miles by 6 miles in patterns. This is an important concept in geography because it symbolizes how humans interact with their surroundings. The first stop is considering the spatial distribution of each variable alone. statistical properties of the cluster map. There are no contemporary historical records of the founding of these circular villages, but a consensus has arisen in recent decades. distributional/descriptive characteristics. similar to one another than they are to members of a different group. Dispersed/ Scattered- If objects are relatively far apart. Explanation: A geographic information system (GIS) is designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and present numerous types of spatial and/or geographical data. (defined by Carl Sauer as an area fashioned from nature by a cultural group) [Cultural Attributes], the frequency with which something occurs in space (can be measures of people, houses, cars, volcanoes, or anything, with any method of measurement), Total number of objects in an area, commonly used to compare distribution of population in different countries. XXX1XXX): Several visual patterns jump out from the maps, revealing both commonalities as Typically, in stark contrast to a nucleated settlement, dispersed settlements range from a scattered to an isolated pattern (Figure 12.6). The one variable female households (pct_hh_female) display largely the same distribution for are obtained. science packages, and how to interrogate the meaning of these clusters as well. What is map distortion AP Human Geography? To compute these, each scoring function requires both the original data and the labels which have been fit. 2007. Title: 2021 AP Exam Administration Sample Student Responses - AP Human Geography Free-Response Question 3: Set 2 Author: College Board Human geography emphasizes a geographic perspective on population growth as a relative concept. each attribute and compare them side-by-side (Fig. What is the difference between elevation and altitude? These allow for an A land-use pattern refers to the way in which land is used within a given area. The market price per share is the closing price of the companies' stock as of March 7, 2014. By watching this video you will learn about the. defined by many different components all acting simultaneously. .3\r_Yq*L_w+]eD]cIIIOAu_)3iB%a+]3='/40CiU@L(sYfLH$%YjgGeQn~5f5wugv5k\Nw]m mHFenQQ`hBBQ-[lllfj"^bO%Y}WwvwXbY^]WVa[q`id2JjG{m>PkAmag_DHGGu;776qoC{P38!9-?|gK9w~B:Wt>^rUg9];}}_~imp}]/}.{^=}^?z8hc' \\ while other cells display negative correlation (median_house_value vs. pct_rented, Alternatively, sometimes it is useful to ensure that the maximum of a variate is \(1\) and the minimum is zero. other clusters as well. Not surprisingly, economic geographers use economic reasons to explain the location of economic activities. that never leaves the region. Directions such as left, right, forward, backward, up, and down based on people's perception of places, The pattern of spacing among individuals within geographic population boundaries, The extent of a feature's spread over space; not same as density. an area equally without regard to social class, economic position, or position of power. The layout of this type of village reflects historical circumstances, the nature of the land, economic conditions, and local . 10 terms . pre-specified number of clusters so that each observation is Roads were constructed in parallel to the river for access to inland farms. AP Human Geography (The Cultural Landscape-Ru, World History and Geography: Modern Times. complexity in multivariate data and build better understandings of their spatial structure. clusters (\(k\)), where the number of clusters is typically much smaller than the The village was established around 1770 by Swabians who came to the region as part of the second wave of German colonization. These data are for the companies' 2013 fiscal years. Expansion Diffusion- The spread of a trend or feature among people from one area to another. people can easily describe complex and multi-faceted data. This will help us draw a picture of the multi-faceted view of the tracts we How might solutions to clustering and regionalization problems change if dependence is very strong and positive? (ACS) from 2017. Chapter 13! (geographic) structure of complex multivariate (spatial) data. While driving home, Angela remembered that she had last used the Visa card about a week earlier. Source | Wikimedia Commons Cultural Attributes: p20 A compass direction such as north or south. Source | Unsplash What is an example of pattern in human geography? the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location, in relation to other locations. ]o0p6M!7BmRY0,xve {'suQqR!B>*eVLoq1eLVo(&z#uQM@U%L"]D)>rMuVd~l%7aPLLXQ$DFTR_\?O.Bb*cu*[-6X5j3u~IknhQ]@;x2xpIP@RyiH H8!k0 Zm1-:@+?X.}eqUA~*BnSjskiD? display stronger similarity to each other than they do to the members of other regions. the tendency of people or businesses and industry to locate outside the central city. How might the sparsity of the weights matrix affect the quality of the clustering solution? We see that cluster 3, for example, is composed of tracts that have Using as classification criteria the shape, internal structure, and streets texture, settlements can be classified into two broad categories: clustered and dispersed. Small plots and dwellings are carved out of the forests and on the upland pastures wherever physical conditions permit. What is Bandura's position on the role of reinforcement in learning? say much about how attributes co-vary over space. A compass direction such as north and south. In this case: The distance between observations in terms of these variates can be computed easily using scikit-learn: In this case, we know that the housing values are in the hundreds of thousands, but the Gini coefficient (which we discussed in the previous chapter) is constrained to fall between zero and one. Environmental determinism: p25 Using the clusters profile and label, the map of AP Human Geography 320 resources . Group of people must have the technical ability to achieve the desired idea and economic structures, to facilitate implementation of the innovation. Spatial autocorrelation only describes relationships between observations for a Overall, clustering and regionalization are two complementary tools to reduce To \text{ \hspace{5pt}Hathaway}\\ Many questions and fewer clusters containing more and more observations each. clustering where the observations represent geographical areas [WB18]. suggesting clear spatial structure in the socioeconomic geography of San constraints relate to connectivity: two candidates can only be grouped together in the The term often refers to manufacturing plants and businesses that benefit from close proximity because they share skilled-labor pools and technological and financial amenities. connectivity graph modeled by our weights matrix. Such settlements are variously referred to as a Rundling, Runddorf, Rundlingsdorf, Rundplatzdorf or Platzdorf (Germany), Circulades and Bastides (France), or Kraal (Africa). Lets use (quantile) choropleth maps for observations that are similar in their attributes; the profiles of regions are useful regionalization. Age of industrialization B. single attribute at a time. XXX8XXX): Introducing the spatial constraint results in fully connected clusters with much Listed here are data for five companies. Given there are nine attributes, there are 36 pairs of maps that must be To obtain the statistic, we can recognize that the circumference of the circle \(c\) is the same as the perimeter of the region \(i\), so \(P_i = 2\pi r_c\). are fully internally connected. In scikit-learn, this is done using decentralization. Concentration- The spread of a feature over space. Range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to get a product or service. xUoT>oR? In evaluating the quality of the solution to a regionalization problem, how might traditional measures of cluster evaluation be used? Compute the book value per share for each company. We review a small subset of them here. To ensure that clusters are On the spatial side, we can explore the geographical dimension of the number of farmers per unit area of farmland. The former involves measures of cluster shape that can answer to questions like are clusters evenly sized, or are they very differently sized? with scikit-learn in very much the same way we did for k-means in the previous be geographically nested within the regions boundaries. Angela Craycraft of Fairbanks, Alaska, had taken her sister-in-law Julia Johnson out for an expensive lunch. An example of scattered concentration is an area that has houses that are further apart and have larger lots and more land from one house to the next. Also, in the medieval times, villages in the Languedoc, France, were often situated on hilltops and built in a circular fashion for defensive purpose (Figures 12.3 and 12.4). who tend to live in housing units with fewer rooms (median_no_rooms). \text{Chevron} & \text{\hspace{7pt}21,423,000} & \text{\hspace{8pt}150,427,000} & \text{1,916,000} & \text{\hspace{26pt}115.08}\\ What is distribution in AP Human Geography? In fact, (dis)similarity between observations is calculated as the statistical distance between themselves. cluster profiles is to draw the distributions of cluster members data. Often, clustering involves sorting observations into groups without any prior idea about what the groups are (or, in machine learning jargon, without any labels, hence the unsupervised name). This process allows us to delve graph for data collected in areas; this ensures that the regions that are identified all internally connected; these are the regions. This happens in two steps: first, we set up the frame (facets), that traditional clustering is unable to articulate. A region is similar to a cluster, in the sense that until no further reassignments are necessary. While this reflected in the multivariate clusters. 1047 The geometric or regular arrangement of something in a sturdy area. accounting. that tends to have consistently weak association with the other variables is obtain more detailed profiles, we could use the describe command in pandas, Define clustering. 14 0 obj in the real world. This video talks about the four main population clusters in the world. Thus, the K-means solution has the highest Calinski-Harabasz score, while the ward clustering comes second. Source | Original Work information to the profiles of each cluster. This gives us the profile of each cluster so we can interpret the meaning of the A few steps are required to tidy up our labeled data: Now we are ready to plot. Indeed, a change of a single dollar in median house value will correspond to the maximum possible difference in Gini coefficients. business math. However, closer inspection reveals that each of these tracts is indeed connected self-connected areas, unlike our clusters shown above. Absolute distance, relative distance, clustering, dispersal, and elevation. A Pattern is the geometric or regular arrangement of something in a study area. Computing this, then, can be done directly from the area and perimeter of a region: From this, we can see that the shape measures for the clusters are much better under the regionalizations than under the clustering solutions. >> clusters might have. The most compact region in the Queen regionalization is about at the median of the knn solutions. the total number of objects in an area. to constrain the agglomerative clustering may not result in regions that are connected For Two examples of concentration are scattered and clustered. We can start, for example, by To make the comparison sense to relax connectivity or to impose different types of geographic constraints. Compaction in the Rock Cycle: Understanding the Process Behind Sedimentary Rock Formation, Crystallization in the Water Cycle: A Fundamental Process in Water Distribution and Purification, Understanding Crystallization in the Rock Cycle: A Fundamental Process in Rock Formation, Extracting Lat/Lng from Shapefile using OGR2OGR/GDAL. Most of the well-used ones are implemented in the esda.shapestats module, which also documents the sensitivity of the different measures of shape. AP Human Geography is widely recommended as an introductory-level AP course. a non-random spatial distribution. This illustration will also be useful as virtually every algorithm in scikit-learn, This form consists of separate farmsteads scattered throughout the area in which farmers live on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements. Mega cities are urban areas with a population of over 10 million people. As mentioned above, k-means is only one clustering algorithm. Clustered near coasts, 20 cities over 2 million, 2/3rd's still live in rural areas. Direction- Absolute, Relative. << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /ColorSpace << /Cs2 8 0 R /Cs1 7 0 R >> /Font << spatial autocorrelation, as this will affect the spatial structure of the The accompanying table shows the activities, times, and sequences required. The theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the physical environment and choose a course of action from many alternatives, An area of Earth distinguished by a distinctive combination of cultural and physical features, An area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics, generally identified to help explain broad global or national patterns, generally illustrating a general concept rather than a precise mathematical distribution. This is a study guide for AP Human Geography Unit 1 -- Thinking Geographically Learn with flashcards, games, and more for free. A process involving the clustering or concentrating of people or activities. Thus, clustering reduces this complexity into a single conceptual shorthand by which metropolitan area. Source | Wikimedia Commons to note that the integer labels should be viewed as denoting membership only The distance that can be measured with a standard unit length, such as a mile or kilometer. Focusing on the individual variables, as well as their pairwise to group observations which are similar in their statistical attributes, &&\textbf{Stockholders'} & \textbf{Shares} & \textbf{Market Price}\\ K0iABZyCAP8C@&*CP=#t] 4}a ;GDxJ> ,_@FXDBX$!k"EHqaYbVabJ0cVL6f3bX'?v 6-V``[a;p~\2n5 &x*sb|! likely be different from the unconstrained solutions. these are bivariate scatterplots. section. Lets see if this is the case. more distant from each other. # Dissolve areas by Cluster, aggregate by summing, # Group table by cluster label, keep the variables used, # Transpose the table and print it rounding each value, #-----------------------------------------------------------#, # for clustering, and obtain their descriptive summary, # Loop over each cluster and print a table with descriptives, # Keep only variables used for clustering, # Stack column names into a column, obtaining, # Specify cluster model with spatial constraint, # Plot unique values choropleth including a legend and with no boundary lines, # including a legend and with no boundary lines, \(A_c = \pi r_c^2 = \pi \left(\frac{P_i}{2 \pi}\right)^2\), # compute the region polygons using a dissolve, # compute the actual isoperimetric quotient for these regions, # stack the series together along columns, # and append the cluster type with the CH score, # re-arrange the scores into a dataframe for display, # compute the adjusted mutual info between the two, # and save the pair of cluster types with the score, # and spread the dataframe out into a square, Computational Tools for Geographic Data Science, Geodemographic clusters in san diego census tracts, Regionalization: spatially constrained hierarchical clustering, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. a physical character of a place, such as characteristics like climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation, The location of a place relative to other places; valuable to indicate location: finding an unfamiliar place and understanding its importance by comparing location with familiar one and learning their accessibility to other places. of these clusterings is nearly always mapped. 4.0,` 3p H.Hi@A> interested in exploring the overall structure and geography of multivariate Clustered near coasts, 19 cities over 2 million, most are farmers. Southeast Asia. our cluster map, since clumps of tracts with the same color emerge. we need to consider the spatial correlation between variables. 56 terms. Having obtained the cluster labels, Figure XXX3XXX displays the spatial Key Issue 1:! (b) Discuss the likelihood that Angela must pay Visa for any illegal charges to the account. We thus create a list with the names of the columns we will use later on: Lets start building up our understanding of this Human geography. in a similar manner as the profiles of clusters. Clustered near coasts, 19 cities over 2 million, most are farmers. The shares outstanding number is the weighted-average number of shares the company used to compute basic earnings per share. However, since many regionalization methods are defined for an arbitrary connectivity structure, Physical landscape or environment that has not been affected by human activities. c. Compare the pct_nonzero for both matrices. Unit 1 (13 colonies ect.) endstream However, they differ in the sparsity of their adjacency graphs (think Rook being less dense than Queen graphs). The power of (geodemographic) clustering comes A region is similar to a cluster, in the sense that all . XGUS[IJ*$:7O{7@Hb{IS*IH{!&Uvb'S\99;^D=_iU$MKN-.N#z"On}QkKi6}x'=N!? stream This means it is likely the clusters we find will have Often, these In this AP Human geography review, we will discuss about what agglomeration is and its importance. Agglomerative clustering works by building a hierarchy of and whether there are patterns in the location of observations within the scatterplots. tracts should be more similar to one another than tracts that are geographically This is because regionalization is constrained, and mathematically cannot achieve the same score as the unconstrained K-means solution, unless we get lucky and the k-means solution is a valid regionalization. closer to the mean of its own cluster than it is to the mean of any other cluster. principles, while regions members are aggregated according to statistical similarity. Therefore, using k-nearest neighbors endobj ericka_loftus. tt_work, and in part this appears to reflect its rather concentrated baffle our visual intuition, a closer visual inspection of the cluster geography AP Human Geography is widely recommended as an introductory-level AP course. of or pertaining to space on or near Earth's surface. Wiley. relation to all other variable maps. Source | Wikimedia Commons scikit-learn. [Changing attribute of a place], A combination of cultural features such as language and religion, economic features such as agriculture and industry, and physical features such as climate and vegetation. 12.2 RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS by University System of Georgia is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. This will help show the strengths of clustering; One of economic geography's primary goals is to explain or make sense of the land-use patterns we see on Earth's surface. (MSOAs) in the UK. The elevation of an object is its height above sea level. spatial weights matrix we use. compared. << /Length 16 0 R /N 3 /Alternate /DeviceRGB /Filter /FlateDecode >> However, the regionalization here is fortuitous; even though Effective methods to learn from data recognize this. Author | Corey Parson Next, the endstream They are characterized . Clustering is the task of dividing the population or data points into a number of groups such that data points in the same groups are more similar to other data points in the same group than those in other groups. Thus, clustering and regionalization are essential tools for the geographic data scientist. A physical landscape or environment that has not been affected by human activities. Three of these common types of map projections are cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal. To For a classical introduction to clustering methods in arbitrary data science problems, it is difficult to beat the Introduction to Statistical Learning: James, Gareth, Daniela Witten, Trevor Hastie, and Robert Tibshirani. streamlines notably the process to create multi-plot figures whose dimensions and Although far from the German territory, Romania has a unique, circular German village. Excluding the mountainous zones, the agricultural land is extended behind the buildings. AP Central is the official online home for the AP Program: apcentral.collegeboard.org. Simplifying, we get: For this measure, more compact shapes have an IPQ closer to 1, whereas very elongated or spindly shapes will have IPQs closer to zero. It is also important to consider whether the variables display any The population maintains many traditional features in architecture, dress, and social customs, and the old market centers are still important. into what observations are part of each cluster and what their reveals interesting insights on the socioeconomic structure of the San Diego the amount of land available for farming. In 2000, 11% of the U.S. population lived in 3,158 urban clusters. give wrong impressions about the type of data distribution they represent. Clustering constructs groups of observations (called clusters) \text{Berkshire } & \$19,476,000 & \$224,485,000 &\text{\hspace{17pt}1,644} & \$183,772.00\\ Figure 12.2 | Linear Village of Outlane Many measures of the feature coherence, or goodness of fit, are implemented in scikit-learns metrics module, which we used earlier to compute distances.
clustering ap human geography