changi pow camp living conditions

The following suggestion was forwarded by the eminent British researcher, historian, and author, Jonathan Moffett. from Changi History. The main contact with the Japanese was at senior-officer level or on work parties outside the camps. However, with camps scattered throughout the Far East, it was impossible for Allied recovery teams to reach them all immediately. The walls were painted over and the murals concealed. British POWs made small lamps using cigarette tins, collecting coconuts to make oil for the lamps. In 1943 in New Guinea the Japanese When Emperor Hirohito told the people of Japan that the war has gone not necessarily to our advantage, the Japanese soldiers at Changi simply handed over the prison to those who had been the prisoners. Rations were cut, camp life was increasingly restricted and in July the authority of Allied senior officers over their troops was revoked. gC$, +*FiR6`% CIE4SYpZwgsX[.)G]{o>u>zD(Hw 1:q08DdDT.FQ2'DA \B;ajHLm$Tb,FX[4D.zoiDsT )Dz$kiT!x*7 Upon the railway's completion in October 1943, the surviving POWs were scattered to various camps in Singapore, Burma, Indochina, and Japan, where they performed manual work for the Japanese until the war's end. thorough search but, thank goodness, that never happened while I The saddest fact was that had the British put patrols out in the North of Singapore the Japanese presence could have been detected and the superior numbers of British troops would have beaten a very aggressive enemy. amenities, such as electric lights and piped water, which contributed to Changi was liberated by troops of the 5th Indian Division on 5 September 1945 and within a week the POWs were being repatriated back to Australia. To embellish them is counter-productive, and silly. Japanese internment camps were established during World War II by President Franklin D. Roosevelt through his Executive Order 9066. 202120748H. Relatives of British POWs who were in Changi POW Camp, Singapore may like to know that the Public Records Office in Kew, London - a short distance from the Gardens and tube station - hold some 58,000 POW index cards in 50 or so boxes. Knowledge of the womens well-being boosted the mens morale. Changi Gaol was scheduled for demolition in the second half of 2004, although the original entrance gate and a section of the outer wall were preserved as a memorial. Eventually, any reference to the area was simply made to Changi. The formula was simple if you worked, you received food, if you did not, you would get no food. The treatment of POWs at Changi was harsh but fitted in with the belief held by the Japanese Imperial Army that those who had surrendered to it were guilty of dishonouring their country and family and, as such, deserved to be treated in no other way.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[580,400],'historylearningsite_co_uk-medrectangle-3','ezslot_2',129,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-historylearningsite_co_uk-medrectangle-3-0'); For the first few months the POWs at Changi were allowed to do as they wished with little interference from the Japanese. Those remaining christened RAPWI Retain all Prisoners of War Indefinitely. Bali; 150 at Kuching (British North Borneo); 2,700 distributed between Across each two-page spread, information in respect of each prisoner is given under the following headings: On the left-hand page: Name; Registration card no; Rank; Unit; Occupation (service or previous civilian). civilian prison, Changi Gaol, was also on the peninsula. Bicycle Camp, which had been the quarters for the Tenth Battalion Bicycle Force of the Netherlands East Indies Army, offered the POWs the best conditions they would experience as prisoners-of-war. prisoner-of-war camps; its privations were relatively minor compared to Records relating to officers and enlisted men of U Battalion and the 2/19th enlisted men of U Battalion and the 2/19th Battalion who were Japanese prisoners of war in Burma, Thailand, and Japan. xref Throughout the time it was used as a prisoner of war camp, it housed an average of approximately 4000 prisoners. Indies in March 1942 left in its wake a mass of Allied prisoners of war, would have made that impossible even if it had been the desire of the Accession Number: Another well-known POW camp was Changi Prison in . Lines. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Kappe wrote. The name Changi is synonymous While we must never forget that 8000 Australians (whose names are commemorated on the Roll of Honour at the Australian War Memorial) died in Japanese captivity during World War II, we should also remember that 14,000 survived. million page visitors parties began to be sent out of Changi to work on projects including the Prior to the war, the Changi Peninsula had Kitchener as well as many other smaller camps. The Americans were the first to leave Changi. underlies Changis place in popular memory. HdT8}+1 +!nk^h&q~*F;B(cW:u/A^ $ When this failed a group of POWs were shot. British prisoners in the Changi area were confined in the Selarang In May 1944 all the Allied prisoners in Changi, now including 5,000 Australians, were concentrated in the immediate environs of Changi Gaol, which up until this time had been used to detain civilian internees. Although weve come along way since 1945 its tragic that despite all that suffering similar inhumanity and injustice is still occurring in different parts of the world. Men were sent to Borneo to work, or to Thailand to work on the Burma-Thai railway or to Japan itself where they were made to work down mines. Newton, (Captain). H Force Leaving for the Burma-Thailand Railway. $:yn1Qt\3Jj|A]N"_v _~*Q )@(k|3IOw]2Q0{)$`Cd}Qy?#R}L*Em%wQawI'Vp05O8amAKgqogMKztCs %}YxVcnO5C]JF2j!O5;#KALy.?pMC'$sKdGgrT*8gVvMAI=]\Y~=yi2 XYp uBRsw7^w,n2n:65=uo5Y` 7V^ In 1980 Changi Gaol was refurbished into a modern penal institution. However, the camp was actually made up of seven POW and internee (civilian prisoner) camps that covered an area of about 25 kilometres. Of the 60,000 Allied POWs who worked on the Thai-Burma Railway, some 12,500 died, many from disease, starvation and ill-treatment. Prisoners-of-war in Changi did suffer deprivation and loss of self-esteem, but conditions were not appalling. What we, in Australia, might call a rural War; tragic and horrific. of Changi, which became a huge POW Camp. No more so than at Changi .. A visit today to Changi Museum and Chapel is a solemn reminder of the evils of war. Behind the walls of Changi Prison: 6 things you may not know about the national monument, All done! For a time even a university operated inside the AIF camp. Access full book title The Changi Brownlow by Roland Perry. 0000009019 00000 n Most of the Australians (14,972) were In 1943, the 7,000 men left at Selerang were moved to the jail in Changi. 5WH!Tk$"2Vz(;vqEpmxbPzk|O$IER3Hn,uH-;,D`{4n [XkXRHQ9Ur#]nd{(&4zC>0R]bFPw-EzTDH K:Uq~\8]{qotuq-`5v@>PMvhmM;I5lWgGy The barracks were vastly overcrowded and had been damaged in the fighting. It became a living hell. most Australians spent the period of captivity in 1942/45. Very little arrived from the Red Cross and the men at Changi had to rely on their own initiative to survive. Changi prison itself and its bleak stone cold cells designed to take 800 prisoners, now became the home of the, mainly white, civilian internees - 3000 men and 400 women and children. 0000001396 00000 n In August all officers above the rank of colonel were moved to Formosa (present-day Taiwan), leaving the Australians in Changi under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Frederick "Black Jack" Galleghan. Changi POW Camp: Changi was a British peacetime garrison situated on the north-eastern tip of Singapore. 0000002925 00000 n Read this subscriber-only article for free! Public entrance via Fairbairn Avenue, Campbell ACT 2612, Book your ticket to visit: awm.gov.au/visit, Copyright From a peak of 10,046 in September 1942, the population dwindled to 6,000 by 1944. Gift of Otto Schwarz. Helps ADF personnel and their families access mental health services. administration. was less terrible than it has been portrayed and less terrible than others. were not appalling. In February 1942 there were around 15,000 Many of them had spent three-and-a-half years at Manzanar. In 1988 one of the original prisoner-of-war chapels was transported to Australia, re-erected in the grounds of the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and dedicated as the national memorial to Australian prisoners of war. You have reached your limit of subscriber-only articles this month. These troops suffered from diseases such as beriberi, malaria, and dysentery. opportunities which work parties provided for both theft and trade. SINGAPORE - Parts of Changi Prison were gazetted as Singapore's 72nd national monument on Monday (Feb 15). GENERAL CONDITIONS: (a) Housing Facilities - Changi Prison was a large building 4 stories tall, 400 yards long by 100 yards wide. In Bicycle Camp, the men of the USS Houston were joined by troops from the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery, a National Guard unit from Texas dubbed "the Lost Battalion" because their whereabouts were unknown during World War II. The early years of colonial Singapore (1825-1873) saw two systems of incarceration with a Convict Prison at Bras Basah and a Civil Prison at Pearl's Hill. Charles Henry Kappe, (Lieutenant Colonel, OBE). Gift of Mrs. Jack (Doris) Smith. After Singapore falls to the Japanese early . Affidavits and sworn statements. Security was further tightened following the arrival of dedicated Japanese POW staff at the end of August 1942. It gives a narrative and pictorial account of life in POW camps north of Australia during World War II. They were replaced by more captured soldiers, airmen and sailors from a variety of Allied nations. Groups of captives were marched and forced to endure "bashings" from the Japanese, who used their rifle butts to keep the men moving. Following Singapore's surrender to. Most of the Australians captured in Singapore were moved into Changi on 17 February 1942. When Sgt Jack O'Donnell was taken prisoner at the fall of Singapore, he was, quite naturally, rather depressed about life. After the war Changi Gaol, renamed Changi Prison, resumed its function as a civilian prison. In May 1944, all the Allied prisoners Managed by Caboodle UX design studio in London, Changi was one of the more notorious Japanese prisoner of war camps. Explaining its decision, the National Heritage Board (NHB) said it was "in remembrance of Singapore's wartime experience and as a grim reminder of this dark episode in our history". The prisoners were subjected to appalling conditions and repeated bashings. After the war Changi Gaol once again became a civilian prison, while the Changi military area was repaired and redeveloped for use by the British garrison. xbbb`b`` & In February 1942 there was 15,000 'Australian' POW, and by mid-1943 only 2,500 remained. Before Changi Prison's completion in 1936, Singapore suffered from acute prison overcrowding. Places of Pride, the National Register of War Memorials, is a new initiative designed to record the locations and photographs of every publicly accessible memorial across Australia. A museum and a replica of one of the chapels POWs were not locked up in a traditional prison. Changi, Singapore 1945. troops of the 5th Indian Division on 5 September, and within a week The average living space per adult was 24 square feet, room barely enough to lie down. Throughout the war, the prisoners in The formula was very simple if you worked, you would get food. This journey to Singapore was one of the most horrific experiences of their captivity, as men were jammed into the holds of rusty old freighters such as the Dai Nichi Maru. It had two four-storey blocks of prison cells branching out from a central covered corridor - following the "telephone-pole" layout commonly adopted by prisons built in the late 19th and 20th centuries. HUao8O'cZJHN~`S&U`~J=Z"3=O>^`UAZj\sLh`t4 8qx3OA G_k'}wkfn,N8/}&0ec~X9A_"y^H"ys=D-Xd bg98 |Y@]\'91JQR\Hap.9`""Nk -f:(( %K.>.OW52W0o'E/2gz>l9'(j'c/h].N`kb-z._w/@kk(Z;0b. All rights reserved. former British Army barracks. The name Changi is synonymous with the suffering of Australian prisoners of the Japanese during the Second World War. captured in Singapore ; other principal Australian prisoner-of-war Of the 1068 crew members on the USS Houston, 368 survived the sinking of the ship and the hours-long swim to the shore of Java. However, the popular representation in the media and in more sensationalised accounts of Changi as a living hell is more appropriately associated with the horrific conditions that faced prisoners of the Burma-Thailand Railway. Singapore were moved into Changi on 17 February 1942. Prisoner of Changi The POW's suffered many hardships whilst their time held in captivity. Roberts Barracks, Kitchener Barracks and the wooden barracks at India In 1943, the 7,000 men left at Selerang were moved to the jail in Changi. When peace was . Initially the Japanese seemed indifferent to what the prisonersdid in Changi Gaol and the other POW camps. Following the weeks of fighting and the ordeal in the water, the men were exhausted and hungry, many of them covered in oil from the ship. Here are six things you may not know about the old Changi Prison. When it fell to Japan on February 15th 1942 it was probably Britains most humiliating defeat. the In normal times when this institution was used as a municipal prison, it housed 800 prisoners. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. When this was refused over 15,000 POWs were herded into a barrack square and told that they would remain there until the order was given to sign the document. The Australia Day march in Selarang Barracks 1943. Use this login for Shop items, and image, film, sound reproductions, Australian prisoners of war: Second World War - Prisoners of the Japanese, Singapore (Changi and Singapore Island Camps), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander military service, British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF), Researching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander military service, Local information sources about Australians at war. Poor sanitation also encouraged the spread of bacillary dysentery. Damaged infrastructure was progressively restored and both running water and electric lighting were common throughout the Changi area by mid-1943. During working hours, Changi was a hive of activity, every prisoner with his own job to do. While some of the survivors forged accommodations with their past and were able to move on, for others the scars and traumas of their wartime service were burdens they would carry for the rest of their lives. There are also stories of mechanical innovation and the various workshops and industries that were established to maintain the camp. Notebook containing information on prisoner-of-war numbers, rations, Red Cross rations, hospital cases, atrocities perpetrated by the Japanese, cemeteries, and numbers left at liberation. He was released in August 1945. Meagre rations caused starvation and prisoners were regularly beaten while being forced to carry out extremely hard labour, sometimes almost around the clock. In February 1942 there were around 15,000 Australians in Changi; by mid-1943 less than 2,500 remained. DVA Online Services modernises transactions for service providers such as transport bookings and invoicing. To take a picture F.G. Galleghan (Brigadier, DSO, OBE, ED, 8th Aust Div, and prisoner of war, Changi). The last few hundred internees left in November 1945, three months after the war ended. Work on the line began in October 1942, and the railway was constructed from both the Thai and Burmese ends. For much of its existence Changi was not one camp but rather a collection of up to seven prisoner-of-war (POW) and internee camps, occupying an area of approximately 25 square kilometres. The British and Dutch were housed at For example, the army medics at Changi made tablets and convinced the Japanese guards that they were a cure for VD, and accordingly sold them to the guards. Concerts were organised, quizzes, sporting events etc. Nearly 13,000 Allied POWs died building the "Death Railway." Life in Changi POW Camp. Seventy years ago this week, on September 6, 1945, the prisoners of war at Changi were finally liberated by Allied soldiers returning to Singapore, bringing 3 years of captivity to an end. History Learning Site Copyright 2000 - 2023. In early 1942 Padre Fred Stallard, a chaplain in Roberts Hospital at Changi, obtained permission to convert a small room of Block 151 into a chapel. ordered the declaration be signed, thus making it clear that the Changi was the main prisoner-of-war camp in Singapore. That is not to say that it was not a bad place, just that it Many POWs believed that the Japanese would kill them as the Allies got near to Singapore. 0000001111 00000 n Statistics With the exception of the Selarang Incident overcrowding was not rife. our cleanliness and good healthy conditions." In October, the majority of the POWs were taken from Bicycle Camp to Singapore, while the rest were sent to work in various camps throughout Asia. camps and movement between them was restricted. New Britain (1,049). Australian & A military garrison of some 100 000 men became POWs, and were marched to Changi POW Camp on the eastern side of Singapore Island. Australian & A.W. Three or four men were frequently crowded into one small cell. War crimes and trials. dedicated as the national memorial to Australian prisoners of war. Food provided was insufficient in quantity and quality, being mainly low quality rice and B vitamin deficient syndromes soon appeared. 2023 Many POWs believed they would then be killed; in fact when the Allies did recapture Singapore, the prison was simply handed over to them. %PDF-1.4 % Records of Australian Military Forces prisoners of war and missing, Far East and South West Pacific Islands . Thousands of civilians, mostly British and Australian, were imprisoned one mile away from Selarang inChangi Gaol. In December 1941, Japan launched aggressive offensives on British territory, occupying several key areas. Most of the original gaol has been demolished, the museum and chapel remain to tell the storyof what happened there after the Japanese capture of Singapore in 1942. by a high concrete fence with guard towers. All visitors require a free timed ticket to enter the Memorial Galleries and attend the Last Post Ceremony. following the arrival of dedicated Japanese POW staff at the end of On May 19, the National Heritage Board will unveil the revamped Changi Chapel and Museum, comprising contributions from the descendants of POWs and civilian internees at the Changi prison. 2023 University of Houston. withdrawal of British troops in 1971, the area was taken over by the Almost a quarter of all Allied prisoners in Japanese hands died during captivity. Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to email this to a friend (Opens in new window). The recent publication of The Changi book, a collection of original essays written in Changi and recently uncovered in the Australian War Memorial archives, helps account for the prisoners' survival. For many Changi was a transit stop as working parties began to be dispatched to other areas. PHOTO: SINGAPORE PRISON SERVICE, A chapel at Changi Prison, a refuge to prisoners of war at Changi Prison during World War II. 0000008014 00000 n 0000002283 00000 n Singapore s Over 22,000 Australians became Public entrance via Fairbairn Avenue, Campbell ACT 2612, Book your ticket to visit: awm.gov.au/visit, Copyright From above, the layout of the prison resembled the top of a telephone pole. Colonel Frederick Black Jack Galleghan. The gift link for this subscriber-only article has expired. Built mainly be Australian prisoners this became St Lukes Chapel. This article is now fully available for you, Please verify your e-mail to read this subscriber-only article in full. To maintain their armies in Burma, the Japanese decided to construct a railway, 420km long, through jungles and mountains from Ban Pong in Thailand to Thanbyuzayat in Burma. Sown together, under the pretext of a gift, the Quilts were handed over to the civilian men for the POW hospital. Although food was rationed, it was provided every day. A hut in Changi prison camp used to accommodate 350 prisoners in 1945. Please try again later. Nov 2002, Digger History: During the Japanese Occupation of Singapore from 1942 to 1945, Changi Prison was converted into an internment camp for civilians and prisoners of war (POW). For two years they endured nightmares and brutality within the prison's stone walls until May 1944 when they were ordered out and given a change of residence. By 1943, the 7,000 men left at Selarang Barracks were moved to Changi Gaol. Required fields are marked *. The camp was organised into battalions, regiments etc and meticulous military discipline was maintained. Armed Forces. by comparison to other Japanese run POW camps. startxref Following the withdrawal of British troops in 1971 the area was taken over by the Singapore Armed Forces and still has one of the main concentrations of military facilities on the island. We recognise their continuing connection to land, sea and waters. They were actually mostly incarcerated Unofficial history of the Australian a time a university was operated inside the AIF camp but, like most suffer deprivation and loss of self-esteem, but conditions galleries are progressively closed from 4 pm. galleries are progressively closed from 4 pm. A collection of articles from Shutters & Sunflowers published elsewhere on the web. If I had a shirt on, These services are confidential and available 24 hours a day. This design allowed for quick warden access to either prison block. Learn how your comment data is processed. No. It had been home to the 2nd The prisoners refused en masse and, on 2 September, all 15,400 British and Australian prisoners were confined in the Selarang Barracks area. Gift of Henry Thew. With such overcrowding, the risk of disease and it spreading was very real. Get unlimited access to all stories at $0.99/month for the first 3 months. Crispin. Second World War. Location: Changi POW Camp. After three days, a compromise was reached: the Japanese Contrary to popular misconception the Burma Railway it was a 'country club'. Gift of George Detre. It was never just a prison in the normal European Tasks included road-building, freight-moving, mine removal and work in chemical factories. In August 1945, atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced the Japanese to surrender. Of some 2,500 Allied prisoners held at Sandakan and Ranau in the first half of 1945, only six, all Australians, survived the war. the original entrance gate and a section of the outer wall will be the site boasted an extensive and well-constructed military The camp was also provided with amenities, such as electric lights and piped water, which contributed to our cleanliness and good healthy conditions." Lionel De Rosario endstream endobj 111 0 obj<>/Outlines 5 0 R/Metadata 14 0 R/PieceInfo<>>>/Pages 13 0 R/PageLayout/OneColumn/StructTreeRoot 16 0 R/Type/Catalog/Lang(EN-US)/LastModified(D:20080313104031)/PageLabels 11 0 R>> endobj 112 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>/Type/Page>> endobj 113 0 obj<> endobj 114 0 obj<> endobj 115 0 obj[/ICCBased 126 0 R] endobj 116 0 obj<> endobj 117 0 obj<> endobj 118 0 obj<>stream IP0/P^V*iJ_/6 B|OG..GQ. POWs were made to dig tunnels and fox holes in the hills around Singapore as hideouts for the Japanese should the Allies return. He passed away in Bridport, England on 20 February 1992, his murals however remain a legacy forever. For many, Selarang was just a transit stop as before long working The Japanese took their American prisoners to the town of Serang, where they spent a week crowded into the local theater along with Australian and Dutch prisoners, with little food and no medical treatment, before being moved to the local jail, where conditions were equally bad. Its name came from the peninsula on which it stood, at the east end of Singapore Island. Although a new Criminal Prison at Pearl's Hill, near the Civil Prison, was built in 1882 to ease overcrowding, the problem eventually returned. All visitors require a free timed ticket to enter the Memorial Galleries and attend the Last Post Ceremony. Were working to restore it. Use this login for Shop items, and image, film, sound reproductions, Information Sheet : Australian prisoners-of-war : Second World War : Prisoners of the Japanese, Prisoners of the Japanese : Civilian internees, The Japanese thrust : Australia in the war of 1939-1945, Major General F.G. "Black Jack" Galleghan. For the next three years and eight months, Mr Jess survived disease, starvation and atrocious living conditions at the Changi prisoner of war camp in the east of Singapore. road between Changi Gaol and Selarang Barracks. mjae. Throughout the war the prisoners in Changi remained largely responsible for their own day-to-day administration. More pointedly, the Japanese made it clear that they had not signed the Geneva Convention and that they ran the camp as they saw fit.For this reason, 40,000 men from the surrender of Singapore were marched to the northern tip of the island where they were imprisoned at a military base called Selerang, which was near the village of Changi. Contains nominal rolls and paybook photographs arranged by name, theatre of war and unit, location of POW camp. To speak with someone at DVA, call 1800VETERAN(1800838372), Inspector-General ADF Afghanistan Inquiry, Some 20,000 Australians served in the Malayan Campaign and the Battle for Singapore, More than 1,800 Australians died during Malayan Campaign and the Battle for Singapore, Some 15,000 Australians became Prisoners of War with the fall of Singapore. The conditions at Changi were much better than at many other POW camps in the region, and the prisoners were also granted a considerable amount of administrative autonomy by the Japanese authorities. (e Armed Forces, Extract Statistics Initially prisoners at Changi were free to roam throughout the area but, in early March 1942, fences were constructed around the individual camps and movement between them was restricted. This camp was designed specifically for Allied airmen who had been shot down over Germany. "fortress" of Singapore fell to Warren began the first of the Changi Murals on 6 October 1942. Changi was liberated by troops of the 5th Indian Division on 5 September 1945 and within a week troops were being repatriated. Two of my uncles were incarcerated in Changi in 1942. Allied prisoners of war helped to build the Burma-Thai Railway amid primitive living conditions like these. reasonably well-equipped camp hospital operated in Roberts Barracks. Includes Changi, the Burma-Thailand Railway, Sandakan, Timor, Ambon, Rabaul and Japan, and the prisoners who died at sea. The section of the railway between Nong Pladuk Junction Railway Station and Nam Tok Sai Yok Noi Railway Halt is still in operation today with . This souvenir cloth is similar to a piece that British POW, Augusta M Cuthbe, had women internees embroider their names on. re-erected in the grounds of the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and For Roberts Barracks remains in use, but : Over 35 By 2005 most of the original prison was demolished and a larger facility built. The prisoners were kept in wooden barracks with no heating, limited food rations, and poor sanitation. Further, contrary to some representations of POWs, those interned at Changi regarded themselves not as passive victims but as agents of their own fate and fortune. BurmaThailand railway. Only when the Japanese refused to make much needed medicine available to the POWs, was the order given to sign the document. This is ironic, since for most of the war in the Pacific Changi was, in reality, one of the most benign of the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps; its privations were relatively minor compared to those of others, particularly those on the BurmaThailand railway. For much of its existence Changi was Changi was liberated by troops of the 5th Indian Division on 5 September 1945 and within a week the POWs were being repatriated back to Australia. Its name came from the peninsula on which it stood, at the What is worse we now have :O-VD !;(w~xbS 8n Once the Japanese took control these barracks were used as prisoner-of-war (POW) camps and eventually any references to anyone of these camps just became Changi.

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